Child Abuse NeglChild Abuse Negl319nihpa7801702Child abuse & neglect0145-21341873-7757pmc-is-collection-domainyespmc-collection-titleNIHPA Author ManuscriptsPMC7389869PMC7389869.173898697389869NIHMS15398483152190510.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104151NIHMS1539848NIHPA15398481ArticleExamining the Link Between Emotional Childhood Abuse and Social Relationships in Midlife: The Moderating Role of the Oxytocin Receptor GeneEbbertAshley M.M.A.aInfurnaFrank J.Ph.D.aLutharSuniya S.Ph.D.aLemery-ChalfantKathrynPh.D.aCorbinWilliam R.Ph.D.aArizona State University, Department of Psychology, Tempe, AZ 85287-1104, U.S.A.Address correspondence regarding this manuscript to: Ashley M. Ebbert, Arizona State University, Department of Psychology, 950 S. McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85287-1104; Phone: 480-965-7598; aebbert@asu.edu. 1292019122019983622391041511041511107202001122020011220203007202023102026This file is available for text mining. It may also be used consistent with the principles of fair use under the copyright law.Background:

A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), rs53576, of the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) has been associated with fundamental aspects of social processes and behaviors. Compared to A carriers, GGindividuals have enhanced social competencies and tend to elicit more positive responses from social partners. However, the G allele of the OXTR rs53576 has also been associated with greater social sensitivity.

Objective:

The current study examined the unique influence of emotional childhood abuse on positive and negative aspects of different types of social relationships (e.g., family, spouse/partner, and friends) in midlife and whether genetic variations of OXTR rs53576 moderated these associations.

Participants and Setting:

A total of 614 participants in midlife (aged 40–65), recruited for a large-scale study of Phoenix metropolitan residents (AS U Live Project), answered self-report questionnaires and provided blood samples for DNA genotyping.

Methods:

Hierarchical multiple regression analyses tested whether emotional childhood abuse predicted social support and strain for each relationship type and whether these potential linkages differed by OXTR genotype (GG versus AA/AG).

Results:

Overall, individuals with a history of emotional childhood abuse had less supportive and more strained relationships in midlife. For supportive family relationships, the effect of emotional childhood abuse was moderated by OXTR rs53576 (p < .001). Under conditions of experiencing more emotional abuse in childhood, GG-individuals had more supportive family relationships in midlife compared to A carriers.

Conclusions:

Overall, genetic variations of OXTR rs53576 may be an important candidate in understanding the development of social functioning within the context of emotional childhood abuse.

Oxytocin Receptor GeneOXTR rs53576Emotional Childhood AbuseSocial RelationshipsMidlifepmc-status-qastatus0pmc-status-liveyespmc-status-embargonopmc-status-releasedyespmc-prop-open-accessnopmc-prop-olfnopmc-prop-manuscriptyespmc-prop-open-manuscriptyespmc-prop-legally-suppressednopmc-prop-has-pdfyespmc-prop-has-supplementnopmc-prop-pdf-onlynopmc-prop-suppress-copyrightnopmc-prop-is-real-versionnopmc-prop-is-scanned-articlenopmc-prop-preprintnopmc-prop-in-epmcyes

Childhood experiences play a fundamental role in shaping developmental outcomes across the lifespan (Baltes, 1987; Pruchno et al., 2010). Early negative experiences have embedded and enduring effects that reach beyond childhood and adolescence and into adulthood and old age (e.g., Miller et al., 2011). Numerous studies have shown that negative childhood experiences are associated with various outcomes in adulthood and old age, including lower levels of well-being (Whitelock et al., 2013), greater psychological distress (Cloitre et al., 2009), early onset of disease (Power et al., 2013), and early mortality (Chen et al., 2016). However, less research has focused on whether negative childhood experiences are associated with social functioning in adulthood and old age (Schafer et al., 2017).

Even fewer studies have examined the unique contributions and relative specificity of emotional abuse on adult social functioning in midlife. The majority of research on childhood maltreatment and adult adjustment has focused primarily on physical and sexual abuse (Alloy et al., 2006), despite the frequent experience of concomitant emotional abuse by children exposed to physical and sexual abuse (e.g., Finkelhor et al., 2007). Compared to other forms of maltreatment (e.g., physical and sexual), emotional childhood abuse has the most significant effects on various adjustment outcomes in adulthood, including internalizing symptoms (Kaplan et al., 1999) and emotional functioning (Spertus et al., 2003). Further, reports of emotional childhood abuse are more strongly and consistently related to adult psychopathology, such as depression (Alloy et al., 2006) and social phobia (Gibb et al., 2007) compared to reports of childhood physical or sexual abuse.

An abundance of research suggests that social relationships may provide a secure foundation for optimal development and successful navigation of life’s (inevitable) challenges (Antonucci, 2001; Luthar et al., 2015). Individuals with strong social support networks, including family members, spouses, and friends have better mental and physical health outcomes than those who do not have as many social resources (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010). Supportive relationships with family members, spouses, and friends are especially important because of their close and ongoing nature (Thoits, 2011; Walen & Lachman, 2000). The quality of these close relationships, in particular, can have significant influences on health and longevity over time (Umberson et al., 2014). For example, supportive relationships, characteristic of mutual affect and affirmation, can have positive and beneficial effects on health and well-being by acting as a buffer to the negative effects of stressful events (Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2014; Cohen & Wills, 1985).

Although there is empirical evidence linking exposure to emotional childhood abuse with problematic outcomes across a variety of developmental domains (Luthar, 2003; Masten & Cicchetti, 2010; Berzenski & Yates, 2010), not all individuals with a history of childhood abuse suffer from deficits in social functioning in adulthood (Doucet & Aseltine, 2003). Many individuals manage to achieve high levels of social competence and emotional health despite the major stresses afforded by their abusive childhood experiences (McGloin & Widom, 2001). Relatively little is known about factors that may increase or decrease one’s vulnerability to the negative effects of emotional childhood abuse on ensuing social development (Nielsen & Mather, 2011). In particular, genetic factors may provide a deeper understanding of how emotional childhood abuse may differentially affect social relationships in midlife. The gene coding for the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) has been found to have broad associations with social and emotional processing (Rodrigues et al., 2009) and may be instrumental in understanding the genetic contribution underlying individual differences in the impact of emotional childhood abuse on social relationships in midlife (Donaldson & Young, 2008).

Given the consequences of emotional childhood abuse on social functioning and relationships throughout development, the goals of the present study are twofold: (1) examine whether emotional childhood abuse is associated with positive and negative aspects of social relationships in midlife across different sources of social support (family, spouse/partner, and friends); (2) examine whether the oxytocin receptor gene moderates the link among emotional childhood abuse and various social relationships in midlife.

Linking Emotional Childhood Abuse to Social Functioning in Midlife

Exposure to emotional childhood abuse may lead to a wide array of interpersonal problems and interpersonal sensitivities (for a review, see Lamphear, 1985). Numerous studies have demonstrated that a history of emotional childhood abuse is related to the development of depression (Wise et al., 2001), anxiety (MacMillan et al., 2001), drug and alcohol dependency (Shin et al., 2013), personality disorders (Horwitz et al., 2001), and generalized distress (Springer et al., 2007). Additionally, emotional childhood abuse is often associated with an increased risk for developing social and emotional problems (e.g., Rogosch et al., 2011). These negative experiences may distort how individuals process emotional information to guide their social behavior and form social relationships, which may compromise the quality of their close relationships throughout development (Rogosch et al., 1995). Specifically, studies have found that individuals with histories of emotional childhood abuse have fewer social competencies, lack the ability to navigate social interactions and relationships, and adopt negative outlook on close relationships (Germine et al., 2015). Even though exposure to emotional childhood abuse is undoubtedly one of the most stressful experiences, not all rough beginnings lead to problematic futures. In the face of childhood abuse, individuals’ ability to adapt is varied, with some being able to maintain psychological and social functioning (Luthar et al., 2000), whereas others may show initial declines, followed by gradual improvements (Infurna & Luthar, 2018).

Multidimensional nature of social relationships.

Social relationships are multidimensional in that they consist of both positive (i.e., supportive) and negative (i.e., strained) qualities (Antonucci, 2001). Supportive relationship features include caring, open, and respectful, whereas strained relationship attributes are defined by criticism, demands, and misunderstanding. The perception and evaluation of social relationship quality depends on the source of support (e.g., family, spouse/partner, or friends; Antonucci, 2001). Spousal relationships are typically considered instrumental sources of emotional support whereas friendships are generally considered sources of positive feedback and mutual appreciation (Lansford, 2000). Relationships that are the most salient and intimate may be impacted the most by external factors. Thus, it is important to disaggregate social networks and examine support and strain from different relationship domains; we focus on the positive and negative sides of social exchanges among unique relationship sources (e.g., family, spouse/partner, and friends).

Genetic Markers Moderating the Emotional Childhood Abuse and Social Relationships Link

Despite the well-established connection between exposure to emotional childhood abuse and the emergence of diverse outcomes for social development (Anda et al., 2006), little is known regarding the genetic pathways that may differentially influence responses to stressors. Research on Gene-Environment (G x E) interactions has demonstrated that genetic variations may contribute to differential risk for negative outcomes under environmental conditions of adversity (Clifford & Lemery-Chalfant, 2015). Childhood abuse is an objectively measured, well-defined stressor that may interact with genetic factors to differentially shape the course of development (see Karg et al., 2011). Although a majority of G X E interaction studies have looked at the environmental effects on genetics (Caspi et al., 2002), recent evidence suggests that the inherent stability and individual nature of genes supports exploring the moderating role of genetics (Burmeister et al., 2008). Genetic variations may influence the degree of individual sensitivity to environmental risk factors, such as childhood abuse (Belsky & Pluess, 2009).

The most prominent G x E model is the diathesis-stress model. This model postulates that an individual may be genetically susceptible to the adverse effects of stressors through certain genetic propensities that may strengthen or weaken the negative effects of childhood abuse on the quality of social relationships in midlife (Ellis et al., 2011). We focus on whether the oxytocin receptor gene moderates the association between emotional abuse in childhood and multiple facets of social relationship quality. Recent studies investigating the genetic underpinnings of complex social behavior have found that oxytocin encourages prosocial behavior (for review, see Campbell, 2010) including generosity (Zak et al., 2007), trust (Kosfeld et al., 2005), emotion recognition (Guastella et al., 2008), and positive communication (Ditzen et al., 2009).

Socio-behavioral aspects of Oxytocin.

Oxytocin is a neuropeptide that plays a critical role in regulating complex social behavior (Kumsta & Heinrichs, 2013) and encoding information relevant to social interactions (Meyer-Lindenberg et al., 2011). Functioning as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone (Gimpl & Fahrenholz, 2001), oxytocin’s involvement spans a variety of physiological and neural processes related to social behavior (e.g., McQuaid et al., 2013). Specifically, oxytocin reduces social stress reactivity (Chen et al., 2011) and dampens physiological stress responses following distress (e.g., decreases cortisol levels; for review, see Heinrichs et al., 2003). Oxytocin also enhances the reward of social encounters and increases the motivation to engage more frequently in social interactions (Insel & Young, 2001). Although the exact understanding of the central effects of the oxytocin system remains unclear, it is possible to generally examine variability in oxytocin function by examining individual differences in the gene coding for the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) (Meyer-Lindenberg et al., 2011). Given the known heritability of sociality in humans (e.g., Knafo & Plomin, 2006), OXTR variations may explain how social behaviors differ across individuals and could play an instrumental role in moderating the effects of emotional childhood abuse on multiple facets of social relationship quality.

Oxytocin Receptor Gene (<italic toggle="yes">OXTR</italic>) and Social Behavior.

Existing research has identified a single intronic OXTR SNP, rs53576 (G/A), commonly studied within the context of key social processes and behaviors (Donaldson & Young, 2008). Recent studies have found a significant association between OXTR rs53576 and a variety of prosocial behaviors that may enhance social competency, elicit more positive responses from social partners, and consequently, increase the overall quality of social relationships across the lifespan (Walum et al., 2012). Studies have found that having one or two copies of the G allele was associated with positive aspects of social functioning, including higher levels of empathy (Rodrigues et al., 2009), positive affect (Lucht et al., 2009), sensitivity to social support (Chen et al., 2011), and nonverbal displays of prosociality (Kogan et al., 2011). Furthermore, studies examining individuals homozygous for the G allele compared to those with the AG or AA genotypes found that those with the GG genotype had higher levels of self-esteem and optimism (Saphire-Bernstein et al., 2011) and exhibited higher trust-related behaviors (Krueger et al., 2012). Together, these studies suggest that those with the GG genotype may have a greater inclination for engaging in adaptive social behaviors.

Gene-Environment Interaction of <italic toggle="yes">OXTR</italic> and Social Relationships

Recent studies examining individuals ranging from childhood to adulthood have provided initial support for a potential gene-environment interaction involving OXTR rs53576 and childhood abuse (Heim et al., 2009; Smearman et al., 2016). When examining the moderating effects of the OXTR rs53576 genotype on the link between childhood abuse and psychological outcomes, not all research supports that G carriers (GG/GA) are more socially adjusted (Cornelis et al., 2012). In fact, recent studies have demonstrated that the rs53576 GG genotype is more susceptible to negative early life experiences (Bradley et al., 2011; McQuaid et al., 2013). However, most of these studies included either adolescent or young adult samples or samples with wide age ranges (e.g., 18 to 90 years of age).

Based on the majority of findings in support of a significant associations between OXTR rs53576 and a variety of prosocial behaviors, it is reasonable to believe that the quality of social relationships in midlife would be higher for individuals with a GG genotype (Walum et al., 2012). Further, central to the diathesis-stress model, G homozygotes who are more socially attuned may possess certain genetic propensities that weaken the negative effects of emotional childhood abuse on their social functioning in midlife.

The Present Study

The current study examined whether emotional childhood abuse is associated with perceived social support and social strain from various relationship sources (e.g., family, spouse/partner, and friends) in midlife and whether the OXTR rs53576 genotype moderates this association. We hypothesized that emotional childhood abuse would be associated with reporting lower levels of social support and higher levels of social strain across each relationship domain. Based on evidence to support that genetic variations of OXTR rs53576 influence sensitivity to social context (Kumsta & Heinrichs, 2013), we predicted that those with the GG genotype would not be as genetically susceptible to the adverse effects of emotional childhood abuse as a result of their inclination for engaging in adaptive social behaviors. Further, for individuals with the GG genotype, we predicted that their advantages in social functioning would weaken the effects of emotional childhood abuse over time. Thus, compared to those with at least one A allele, we hypothesize that individuals with the GG genotype will report higher levels of social support in midlife, even with histories of emotional childhood abuse.

MethodParticipants and Procedure

The present study used data from the AS U Live Project, which is a large-scale study of residents from the Phoenix metro area in midlife (aged 40–65) focusing on identifying individual, familial and social factors in resilience (Zautra et al., 2016). A total of 800 study participants were recruited, with a final number of 614 participating in the portion of the study that involved answering self-report questionnaires and providing blood samples for DNA genotyping. Participants completed self-report questionnaires about early family life and the current quality of social relationships among friends, family members, and romantic partner. On average, participants were 54 years of age (SD = 7.20), 52% women, 73% had a spouse/partner (average relationship length = 20 years, SD = 12.68), 71.6% white, and 50% attended some college.

Sampling and Recruitment.

As described in full detail previously (Infurna et al., 2015), a purposive sampling strategy was used to recruit 800 participants from 40 census tracts across the metropolitan Phoenix area between 2007 and 2012. This method increased the external validity of research findings through representativeness of individuals, environment, and measured outcomes. Prior to participation, participants gave informed consent. Participants were compensated for completion of self-report questionnaires and for providing blood samples. Inclusion criteria for recruitment were: (1) presently between the ages of 40 and 65 years, and (2) either English or Spanish speaking. Exclusionary criteria were: presence of physical, psychiatric, or cognitive impairments during initial recruitment contact, as measured by the Mental Status Questionnaire (Kahn & Miller, 1978). Attempts were made to keep balance between genders. The study was approved by the Arizona State University Institutional Review Board.

Genotyping for <italic toggle="yes">OXTR rs53576</italic>.

Our sample was genotyped for genetic markers representing candidate genes, e.g., OXTR rs53576. During a home health visit, whole blood samples for genotyping were collected, and DNA extraction, quantification, normalization, and amplification was done at the University of Wisconsin—Madison Biotechnology Sequencing Center. Strict quality control procedures were applied, ensuring the exclusion of duplication errors, Mendelian errors, missing call rates, gender and chromosomal anomalies, Hardy-Weinberg disequilibrium, and hidden relatedness. Due to potential concerns with population stratification and genetic admixture possibly confounding results of an association if genetic variants are overrepresented in some ethnic subgroups and also overrepresented in people with high or low phenotypic scores (Shtir et al., 2009), analyses testing genetic moderation will include ethnicity-by-environment and ethnicity-by-gene interaction terms in the same models that will test the gene-environment interactions (Keller, 2014).

The allele distribution of OXTR rs53576 was 279 GG individuals (128 male, 151 female) and 265 AG (133 male, 132 female) and 69 AA individuals (36 male, 33 female), representing distributions previously observed in the American population (Butovskaya et al., 2016). Based on previous studies, we coded OXTR rs53576 as a two-level, A carrier model (GG and AG/AA).

MeasuresEmotional childhood abuse.

We used the short-form of the childhood trauma questionnaire (CTQ) to assess emotional childhood abuse (Bernstein et al., 2003). The CTQ is a retrospective report that measures the degree to which individuals experienced emotional abuse (M = 2.29, SD = 1.21, α = .88) before the age of 18. Items were answered on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (never true) to 5 (very often true). Using the stem question, “When I was growing up…,” participants responded to three items for emotional abuse, including, “People in my family called me things like, ‘stupid,’ ‘lazy,’ or ‘ugly,’” “People in my family said hurtful or insulting things to me,” and “I believe I was emotionally abused.” Although the CTQ is a retrospective report, it has been used as a guideline in clinical populations for determining whether people experienced significant emotional abuse in childhood (Thombs et al., 2006). The items were averaged with higher scores indicating higher levels of emotional childhood abuse.

Social support and strain.

Perceived social support and social strain from family (not including one’s spouse or partner), spouse/partner, and friends were measured to differentiate positive (family M = 3.32, SD = 0.68, α = .91; spouse/partner M = 3.55, SD = 0.59, α = .88; friends M = 3.31, SD = 0.61, α = .90) and negative (family M = 2.21, SD = 0.66, α = .86; spouse/partner M = 2.19, SD = 0.65, α = .86; friends M = 1.77, SD = 0.52, α = .86) aspects of social relationship quality among discrete relationship-types (see Walen & Lackman, 2000). All items were answered on a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 4 (a lot). Indicators of positive relationship qualities were measured through 6 items for each relationship (example item: How much do they care about you?). Indicators of negative relationship qualities were measured through 6 items for each relationship (example item: How often do they make too many demands on you?). Values of social support and social strain were independently averaged to capture perceptions of social relationship quality from each relationship domain with higher scores reflecting either higher support or higher strain.

Covariates.

Age, gender, ethnicity, education, and neuroticism were included in the analyses as covariates because of their relationship to emotional childhood abuse and social relationships. Due to environmental effects being 30% heritable and the likelihood that people scoring high on neuroticism report more childhood abuse, we included neuroticism as a covariate. Further, the inclusion of neuroticism as a covariate to control for self-report bias has been used in similar studies involving retrospective reports of childhood maltreatment (e.g., Reuben et al., 2016). Neuroticism was assessed with items from the Big-Five Inventory (Goldberg, 1992), including depressed, relaxed, tense, worrying, emotionally stable, moody, calm, and nervous. Participants were asked how well each item described him/her in general on a 4-point scale (1 = disagree strongly; 5 = agree strongly, α = .82).

Statistical Analyses

Separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted in order to examine whether emotional childhood abuse predicted social support and strain for each relationship source (e.g., family, spouse/partner, friends). Four regression models were tested. First, we included the covariates discussed above (age, gender, ethnicity, education, and neuroticism). The second model included OXTR rs53576 genotype. In the third model, we included emotional childhood abuse to examine whether it uniquely predicted positive and negative aspects of social relationship quality, after accounting for the covariates. The final model included the emotional childhood abuse x OXTR rs53576 genotype interaction to examine whether linkages between emotional childhood abuse and social relationship quality differed by OXTR genotype.

ResultsDescriptive Statistics

Table 1 depicts the descriptive statistics and correlations for all variables examined within the regression models. Neuroticism was positively correlated with emotional childhood abuse and current strained relationships and negatively correlated with current supportive relationships. Outcome variables (supportive and strained relationships across relationship sources) were also significantly correlated ranging from r = .09 to r = .65.

Gene-Environment Correlation.

A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was done to determine whether there were differences in levels of emotional childhood abuse by OXTR rs53576 genotypes (AA, AG, and GG). There were no differences in reports of emotional childhood abuse across the OXTR rs53576 genotypes [F (2, 601) = .106, p = .90]. Thus, these findings suggest that there is no evidence for a gene-environment correlation with OXTR rs53576 for histories of emotional childhood abuse.

Emotional Childhood Abuse, <italic toggle="yes">OXTR rs53576</italic>, and Social Relationship QualitySupportive and strained family relationships.

Table 2 shows results for our models predicting supportive and strained family relationships. Focusing on Model 4, more emotional abuse experienced in childhood significantly predicted perceiving family relationships as being less supportive in midlife (β = −.24). There was a significant 2-way interaction between OXTR rs53576 and emotional childhood abuse (β = .16). Compared to A-carriers, individuals with GG genotypes who experienced higher levels of emotional childhood abuse perceived family relationships as being more supportive in midlife (see Figure 1).

In an attempt to eliminate alternative explanations for the significant 2-way interaction between OXTR rs53576 and emotional childhood abuse, and properly control for the confounding effects of ethnicity on this genetic interaction, ethnicity-by-environment and ethnicity-by-gene interaction terms were entered in the same hierarchical regression model. The effects of ethnicity-by-environment and ethnicity-by-gene interaction terms were not significant, thus, eliminating population stratification as a possible alternative explanation for the findings.

Additionally, in Model 4, higher levels of emotional childhood abuse significantly predicted perceiving family relationships as being more strained in midlife (β = .28). A significant 2-way interaction was not detected between OXTR rs53576 genotype and emotional childhood abuse for strained family relationships.

Supportive and strained spouse/partner relationships.

Table 3 shows results for our models predicting supportive and strained spouse/partner relationships. There were no significant main effects of childhood abuse on perceived levels of support for romantic relationships. The only significant main effects were ethnicity (β = .17), gender (β = .13), and neuroticism (β = −.23). There was a significant 2-way interaction between ethnicity and emotional abuse (β = .15).

For strained romantic relationships, emotional childhood abuse was a significant predictor of perceiving romantic relationships as being more strained (β = .10). There were no significant interaction effects for strained romantic relationships. Ethnicity (β = −.10) and higher levels of neuroticism (β = .31) were significant predictors of strained romantic relationship. There was also a significant 2-way interaction between ethnicity and emotional abuse (β = −.14).

Supportive and strained friend relationships.

There were no significant main nor interaction effects for supportive friendships. Table 4 depicts the predictors that uniquely contributed to supportive friend relationships, having considered variance shared with all other predictors in the equation. At every step of the analysis, being less educated, non-white, and male were significantly associated with perceiving friendships as being less supportive (β = .12, β = .16, and β = −.17, respectively). Higher levels of neuroticism were associated with perceiving friendships as being less supportive (β = − .15).

After controlling for neuroticism and other demographic variables of interest, emotional childhood abuse was a significant predictor of strained friendships (β = .13). Accounting for all other variables, being younger was significantly associated with perceiving friendships as being more strained (β = −.11). Consistent with all prior analyses, neuroticism was associated with perceived strain for friendships (β = .21). After controlling for genotype and emotional abuse, gender was significantly associated with perceiving friendships as being more strained (β = .08). There were no significant interaction effects for strained friendships.

Discussion

Given the importance of social relationships for physical, mental, and emotional health in midlife, the present study examined genetic variations of OXTR rs53576 as one potential moderator influencing the link between emotional childhood abuse and perceived social support and social strain from various relationship sources (e.g., family, spouse/partner, and friends) in midlife. Based on the potential for genetic processes to motivate affiliative behaviors (DeWall et al., 2011) and prior research implicating the role of the oxytocin system in close relationship processes across development (Donaldson & Young, 2008), we were interested in understanding how OXTR may interact with emotional childhood abuse to predict social functioning in midlife. We found that variations in OXTR rs53576 genotype contributed to individual differences in response to histories of emotional childhood abuse and its association with social functioning in midlife.

Emotional Childhood Abuse and Positive and Negative Aspects of Social Relationships

Our findings that emotional abuse experienced in childhood was significantly associated with perceiving relationships in midlife as being less supportive and more strained, in general, are consistent with previous research findings showing that emotional childhood abuse can have profound influences on the quality of relationships throughout the course of development (e.g., Schafer et al., 2011). Numerous studies have found that individuals who experienced emotional abuse in childhood were at-risk for having social delays (Kim & Cicchetti, 2010) and interpersonal difficulties that persisted into adulthood (Young & Widom, 2014). These individuals were also more likely to have detached familial relationships (Davey et al., 2007) and marital problems (Waldinger et al., 2006). Thus, it may be that emotional childhood abuse interferes with the development of social skills, which in turn, impacts social functioning in close relationships.

Regarding familial relationships, emotional childhood abuse had a negative impact on supportive family relationships for adults in midlife, which is consistent with previous research on the negative effects of emotional childhood abuse on feelings of closeness to family (Savla et al., 2013). For relationships with spouses/partners, our findings that emotional abuse was associated with perceiving romantic relationships as being more strained is consistent with existing literature on the difficulties of establishing healthy, intimate relationships in adulthood after experiencing emotional abuse in childhood (Colman & Widom, 2004). These findings suggest that adults with histories of childhood abuse may differ in their overall quality of romantic relationships and even in their willingness to become involved in these relationships.

Overall, early experiences of emotional abuse have significant and enduring effects on the affective quality of close, personal relationships. Later in life, these negative childhood experiences may continue to influence internal working models of social relationships. It is possible that individuals in midlife who experienced emotional abuse in childhood perceive social interactions as being less supportive and more strained. In sum, emotional childhood abuse may disrupt social and emotional development, which can lead to deficits in social functioning in midlife.

Emotional Childhood Abuse, <italic toggle="yes">OXTR</italic> rs53576, and Supportive and Strained Social Relationships

Our findings suggest that negative early life experiences may create vulnerabilities or interact with genetically based vulnerabilities that lead to disruptions in social functioning, such as emotion processing and social competence. Our results are consistent with findings in the literature that individuals with the OXTR GG genotype show advantages in psychological adjustment, processing of social information, trust behaviors, and creating supportive interpersonal contexts (Bakermans-Kranenburg & van IJzendoorn, 2008). Regarding supportive family relationships, individuals homozygous for the G allele of OXTR rs53576 who reported higher levels of emotional childhood abuse were likely to have more supportive family relationships than A carriers. Within the context of high emotional childhood abuse, unlike individuals with at least one A allele, those with the GG genotype seemed to be less negatively impacted by emotional childhood abuse. In other words, individuals reporting higher levels of emotional childhood abuse with at least one A allele did not find family relationships to be as supportive in midlife.

Similar to our findings on emotional abuse, genetic variations impact the degree to which individuals benefit from social support with A carriers responding less favorably to support (Chen et al., 2011). OXTR rs53576 may influence the effectiveness of social support by influencing the reward value of social interaction early in development, which may in turn influence the tendency to seek and benefit from social support. These findings suggest that those with the GG genotype may benefit from their socially attuned attributes, particularly within the context of having a history of emotional childhood abuse. Although most studies have focused on genetic variations that confer risk in the context of emotional childhood abuse, an alternate perspective suggests that the inherited phenotype may represent the degree of individual sensitivity to the environmental context and serve as a protective factor (Belsky & Pluess, 2009).

Limitations and Future Directions

We note several limitations. First, our measure of emotional childhood abuse was a retrospective self-report and memories of childhood experiences are not always recovered reliably. Prior studies have used the CTQ in clinical and non-clinical populations to obtain reliable and valid accounts of emotional abuse (Bernstein et al., 1997). In the current study, we included neuroticism as a covariate in order to control for the heritable trait influence on retrospective reports of emotional childhood abuse. Second, even though it is known that oxytocin is both a peripheral hormone and a central nervous system neurotransmitter with central effects in the amygdala that are believed to motivate prosocial behavior (Campbell, 2010), the molecular functionality of the OXTR gene is currently unknown. Future oxytocin studies should incorporate the role of epigenetic regulatory mechanisms, in particular DNA methylation, of the OXTR gene and its impact on social functioning. For example, environmental effects have the potential to influence expressions of OXTR and lead to epigenetic changes of the genotype (IJzendoorn et al., 2010). Future studies should elucidate how other genes may interact with OXTR rs53576 and the oxytocinergic system in affecting social behavior.

Moreover, a sole GxE effect with OXTR may concern the strength and reliability of this finding. However, Genetic risk factors explain, individually, only a small proportion of the variance in outcomes. Given the strong main effects and greater R2 values within familial relationships, and considering that emotional childhood abuse is likely to occur within the familial context, we would expect moderation effects for family relationships.

Research on how biological and environmental factors interact to influence individual responses to stress and perceived social support is a significant component of future research programs aimed at advancing clinical applications. This research could inform novel approaches to help individuals adjust to environmental factors, especially ones that are early in development. Through understanding how OXTR rs53576 relates to social behaviors and stress, effective interventions could potentially decrease emotional stress and promote positive social attributes and willingness to interact more often in rewarding social behaviors, which may lead to improved health and quality of life throughout development (Kosfeld et al., 2005).

Conclusion

Early developmental environments marked by emotional childhood abuse may represent vital pathways for understanding the course of social functioning in midlife. Genetic variation may moderate the link between childhood adversity and later social functioning, which may be a significant contributing factor to mental and physical health risks in midlife. Our findings suggest that OXTR rs53576, in particular, may have unique implications for examining the link between negative childhood environments and social functioning in midlife.

This work was funded by the National Institute on Aging R01 AG26006. The funders had no role in study design, data collection, and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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Illustrating the moderating effect of OXTR rs53576 genotype on levels of emotional childhood abuse for ratings of supportive family relationships. Compared to A-carriers, individuals with GG genotypes were more likely to perceive family relationships as being more supportive in the context of higher levels of emotional childhood abuse.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Among All Variables

MSDMeasure12345678910111213
3.320.681. Family Support1
2.210.662. Family Strain−.44**1
3.550.593. Spouse Support a.28**−.22**1
2.190.654. Spouse Strain a−.20**.34**−.65**1
3.310.615. Friend Support.25**−.10*.22**−.13**1
1.770.526. Friend Strain−.13**.31**−.12*.22**−.33**1
53.617.207. Age−.05−.12**0.07−.08.00−.13**1
0.480.508. Gender b−.08−.16**.15**−.10*−.15**.02.071
0.720.459. Ethnicity c.07−.08.17**−.11*.19**−.08.19**−.061
6.501.7410. Education.09*−.060.050.01.14**−.05.13**.00.19**1
21.426.4011. Neuroticism−.28**.35**−.25**.33**−.14**.24**−.07−.16**−.01−.021
0.450.5012. OXTR rs53576 GG−.030.02−.040.02−.08.03.05−.03−.02.03−.021
2.301.2113. Emotional Abuse−.30**.37**−.15**.20**−.10*.19**−.03−.15**−.11**−.07.33**−.011

Note. n = 614. However, there is a variation in sample size for the spouse/partner variables.

n = 465.

Female = 0, Male = 1

Other = 0, White = 1

p < .05.

Examining the Moderating Effect of OXTR rs53576 Genotype on the Link Between Emotional Childhood Abuse

Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4
Family SupportEstimateSEβEstimateSEβEstimateSEβEstimateSEβ
Variables
Constant3.32*0.033.32*0.033.32*0.033.32*0.03
Age−0.01*0.00−0.080.01*0.00−0.08−0.010.00−0.07−0.01*0.00−0.08
Gender a−0.15*0.050.11−0.15*0.050.11−0.190.05−0.14−0.18*0.05−0.13
Ethnicity b0.080.060.050.080.060.050.040.060.030.050.060.03
Education0.03*0.020.080.03*0.020.080.030.020.070.030.020.07
Neuroticism−0.03*0.00−0.31−0.03*0.00−0.31−0.03*0.00−0.24−0.03*0.00−0.25
OXTR rs53576 GG−0.050.05−0.04−0.060.05−0.04−0.060.05−0.04
Emotional Abuse−0.14*0.02−0.24−0.13*0.02−0.24
Ethnicity x GG−0.040.11−0.02
Ethnicity x Emotional Abuse0.060.050.05
Emotional Abuse x GG0.18*0.040.16
R20.110.650.110.650.160.630.190.62
ΔR20.11*0.000.05*0.03*
Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4
Family StrainEstimateSEβEstimateSEβEstimateSEβEstimateSEβ
Variables
Constant2.20*0.032.20*0.032.20*0.022.20*0.02
Age−0.01*0.00−0.10−0.01*0.00−0.10−0.01*0.00−0.10−0.01*0.00−0.11
Gender a−0.14*0.05−0.11−0.14*0.05−0.10−0.100.05−0.07−0.10*0.05−0.08
Ethnicity b−0.060.06−0.04−0.060.06−0.04−0.020.060.01−0.010.060.01
Education−0.010.02−0.02−0.010.02−0.020.000.01−0.01−0.010.01−0.01
Neuroticism0.03*0.000.320.03*0.000.320.02*0.000.230.02*0.000.23
OXTR rs53576 GG0.040.050.030.050.050.040.050.050.04
Emotional Abuse0.15*0.020.280.15*0.020.28
Ethnicity x GG0.210.110.07
Ethnicity x Emotional Abuse−0.10*0.04−0.09
Emotional Abuse x GG−0.010.04−0.01
R20.140.610.140.610.210.590.220.58
ΔR20.14*0.000.07*0.01*

Note. n = 614.

Female = 0; Male = 1

Other = 0; White = 1

p < .05

Examining the Moderating Effect of OXTR rs53576 Genotype on the Link Between Emotional Childhood Abuse and Spouse Relationships

Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4
Spouse SupportEstimateSEβEstimateSEβEstimateSEβEstimateSEβ
Variables
Constant3.54*0.033.54*0.033.53*0.033.55*0.03
Age0.000.000.010.000.000.010.000.000.000.000.000.01
Gender a0.16*0.050.140.16*0.050.130.15*0.050.130.15*0.050.13
Ethnicity b0.24*0.060.180.24*0.060.180.23*0.060.180.22*0.060.17
Education−0.010.020.02−0.010.020.02−0.010.020.02−0.010.02−0.02
Neuroticism−0.02*0.00−0.24−0.02*0.00−0.24−0.02*0.00−0.22−0.02*0.00−0.23
OXTR rs53576 GG−0.040.05−0.03−0.040.05−0.03−0.050.05−0.04
Emotional Abuse−0.020.02−0.05−0.020.02−0.05
Ethnicity x GG−0.020.12−0.01
Ethnicity x Emotional Abuse0.16*0.050.15
Emotional Abuse x GG0.030.040.03
R20.110.560.120.560.120.560.140.55
ΔR20.11*0.000.000.02*
Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4
Spouse StrainEstimateSEβEstimateSEβEstimateSEβEstimateSEβ
Variables
Constant2.21*0.032.21*0.032.21*0.032.20*0.03
Age0.000.00−0.050.000.00−0.050.000.00−0.050.000.00−0.05
Gender a−0.070.06−0.05−0.070.06−0.05−0.050.06−0.04−0.050.06−0.04
Ethnicity b−0.17*0.07−0.12−0.17*0.07−0.12−0.16*0.07−0.11−0.15*0.07−0.10
Education0.030.020.070.030.020.070.030.020.080.030.020.08
Neuroticism0.03*0.010.330.03*0.010.330.03*0.010.300.03*0.010.31
OXTR rs53576 GG0.030.060.020.040.060.030.050.060.04
Emotional Abuse0.06*0.030.100.06*0.030.10
Ethnicity x GG−0.160.13−0.05
Ethnicity x Emotional Abuse−0.17*0.05−0.14
Emotional Abuse x GG−0.020.05−0.02
R20.130.610.130.610.140.610.160.60
ΔR20.13*0.000.01*0.02*

Note. n = 465.

Female = 0; Male = 1

Other = 0; White = 1

p < .05

Examining the Moderating Effect of OXTR rs53576 Genotype on the Link Between Emotional Childhood Abuse and Friend Relationships

Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4
Friend SupportEstimateSEβEstimateSEβEstimateSEβEstimateSEβ
Variables
Constant3.31*0.023.31*0.023.31*0.023.31*0.02
Age−0.010.00−0.060.000.00−0.050.000.00−0.050.000.00−0.05
Gender a−0.20*0.05−0.16−0.20*0.05−0.17−0.21*0.05−0.17−0.21*0.05−0.17
Ethnicity b0.23*0.060.170.22*0.060.160.22*0.060.160.22*0.060.16
Education0.04*0.010.120.04*0.010.120.04*0.010.120.04*0.010.12
Neuroticism−0.02*0.00−0.17−0.02*0.00−0.17−0.02*0.00−0.15−0.01*0.00−0.15
OXTR rs53576 GG−0.090.05−0.07−0.090.05−0.08−0.090.05−0.08
Emotional Abuse−0.020.02−0.04−0.020.02−0.04
Ethnicity x GG0.040.110.02
Ethnicity x Emotional Abuse−0.020.04−0.02
Emotional Abuse x GG−0.030.04−0.03
R20.100.580.100.580.100.580.100.58
ΔR20.10*0.010.000.00
Model 1Model 2Model 3Model 4
Friend SupportEstimateSEβEstimateSEβEstimateSEβEstimateSEβ
Variables
Constant1.77*0.021.77*0.021.77*0.021.77*0.02
Age−0.01*0.00−0.10−0.01*0.00−0.10−0.01*0.00−0.11−0.01*0.00−0.11
Gender a0.070.040.060.070.040.060.08*0.040.080.08*0.040.08
Ethnicity b−0.050.05−0.05−0.050.05−0.05−0.040.05−0.03−0.030.05−0.02
Education−0.010.01−0.02−0.010.01−0.02−0.010.01−0.02−0.010.01−0.02
Neuroticism0.02*0.000.250.02*0.000.250.02*0.000.200.02*0.000.21
OXTR rs53576 GG0.040.040.040.040.040.040.040.040.04
Emotional Abuse0.06*0.020.130.06*0.020.13
Ethnicity x GG−0.160.09−0.07
Ethnicity x Emotional Abuse−0.050.04−0.05
Emotional Abuse x GG0.000.030.00
R20.080.500.080.500.100.500.100.50
ΔR20.08*0.000.02*0.01

Note. n = 614.

Female = 0; Male = 1

Other = 0; White = 1

p < .05